Milk Feeding to Dairy Calves

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by Toyin Osuolale, Ph.D. Student, reviewed by Peter Erickson, Ph.D., PAS, Dipl. ACAS
  • Holstein heifer calf laying in a pen

Milk feeding is essential for successful dairy calf management, influencing their health, growth, and future productivity. Previously, it was common to feed neonatal calves approximately 10% of their bodyweight in milk daily; however, recent studies have shown that increasing the amount of milk fed to 20% bodyweight can significantly improve growth rates and overall health (Khan et al.,2011). This accelerated feeding strategy supports gastrointestinal development by promoting the growth of intestinal villi, which are necessary for nutrient absorption and digestion. Adequate milk intake is essential for developing the calf’s immune system. Higher milk-feeding volumes during the preweaning period are linked to better long-term performance, including improved weight gain, feed efficiency, and reproductive success. By implementing effective milk-feeding strategies, farmers can ensure that their calves are well-equipped to thrive in health and performance by prioritizing appropriate nutrition in the initial stages of life.

Milk Feeding Options

Milk is the primary source of nutrition for pre-weaned dairy calves, and it plays a critical role in promoting healthy growth, development, and overall performance. Choosing the right type of milk and implementing effective feeding strategies is important to optimize these outcomes.

  1. Whole Milk: Whole milk contains a balanced combination of proteins, fats, lactose, and essential vitamins. It is the most natural form of milk feeding and provides all the necessary nutrients to support early calf growth. The “traditional” milk rate was recommended at 8 to 10% of body weight (BW); however, higher feeding rates of 12 to 20% BW are often fed. Calves with ad libitum access to milk will consume close to 20% BW in milk. This means that a 100 lb. Holstein will consume between 4.6 quarts and 9 quarts daily. As the calf’s BW increases, milk consumption should also increase. Whole milk is readily available on farms and supports strong early growth. Proper handling is necessary to avoid pathogen transmission. Pasteurization is recommended to prevent the spread of diseases like Johne’s or Salmonella. Milk should be fed at a temperature of 100°F- 104°F for palatability and to avoid bloat.

NOTE: If feeding milk at an accelerated rate (-20% of BW), a proper step-down procedure should be implemented to ensure starter intake and rumen development. 

  1. Milk Replacer: Milk replacer is a powdered alternative designed to mimic much of the nutritional profile of whole milk. It typically contains 20-28% crude protein and 10-22% fat. Modern milk replacers are often fortified with vitamins (A, D, E) and minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium). It should be fed at 12%-20% of the calf's birth weight daily. Milk replacers can also be tailored to the specific nutritional needs of calves and provide more consistent nutrition. The quality of milk replacer can vary. It is important to choose a product with high digestibility, especially for young calves (less than 3 weeks old).
  2. Transition Milk: Transition milk is the milk produced by the cow after colostrum, typically from the second to sixth milking post-calving. While it looks like regular milk, it still contains elevated levels of immune factors, nutrients, and growth-promoting compounds that are essential for a calf's early development. Feeding this milk bridges the gap between the highly concentrated colostrum and mature milk, offering continued immune support as the calf begins to develop its defense system. The bioactive compounds in transition milk help close the gut wall, support beneficial gut bacteria, and reduce the risk of scours and other early-life illnesses. To maximize its benefits, transition milk should be collected and stored separately from saleable milk. It can be pasteurized to reduce bacterial load.
  3. Acidified Milk/Milk Replacers: Acidified milk/ milk replacer that has had an acid, like citric or propionic acid, added to lower its pH, typically to around 4.0–4.5. This lower pH helps prevent the growth of harmful bacteria, allowing the milk to stay fresh longer, even at room temperature. Acidification can be done manually on the farm or by purchasing pre-acidified milk replacer products. Feeding acidified milk to calves has several benefits. The acidic environment mimics the natural acidity of a healthy calf’s abomasum, supporting better digestion and reducing the risk of digestive upsets like scours. It also promotes the growth of beneficial gut bacteria and improves nutrient absorption. Because of its shelf stability, acidified milk is often used in ad libitum or free-choice feeding systems, where calves can drink small amounts throughout the day. When preparing acidified milk on-farm, it is important to measure pH carefully and ensure even mixing. Over-acidification can reduce palatability and intake, while under-acidification will not prevent spoilage. Farmers should use clean equipment, monitor calf response, and consult nutritionists or veterinarians before switching to acidified feeding systems. With proper management, acidified milk can be a valuable tool for improving calf health and simplifying the feeding routine.
  4. Waste Milk: Waste milk comes from fresh cows, cows that have been treated with antibiotics, or cows with other health issues that prevent the milk from entering the bulk tank. It is like whole milk in terms of nutrients, but carries the risk of disease transmission and antibiotic resistance. Like whole milk, waste milk should be fed at around 12-20% of the calf’s birth weight daily. It is an economical option, often considered "free" because it cannot be sold. It provides similar growth rates to whole milk without additional costs. Waste milk must be pasteurized to reduce the risk of spreading pathogens and antibiotic residues. Improper handling and storage can lead to bacterial contamination, negatively affecting calf health.

NOTE: Avoid feeding waste milk containing antibiotics to calves that are intended for slaughter. Do not feed calves waste milk that appears watery or comes from quarters showing severe mastitis, from cows with an elevated temperature, cows that are off-feed, or cows that have recently been treated with antibiotics.

Feeding Frequency

  1. Twice Daily Feeding: This is the most common feeding schedule where calves are fed two equal portions of milk (whole milk or milk replacer) daily, morning and evening. It ensures the calf receives consistent nutrition and promotes regular digestive function. Twice-a-day feeding is manageable in terms of labor and provides the calf with enough nutrients for steady growth. While convenient, this method can leave long gaps between feedings, which may increase hunger and stress in some calves.
  2. Three-Times Daily Feeding: Feeding calves three times a day provides smaller, more frequent meals, mimicking the natural feeding behavior of calves suckling from the dam. This method promotes better digestion and can lead to higher growth rates. More frequent feedings support consistent energy intake, reduce hunger, and promote better nutrient absorption, especially for young calves (less than 3 weeks old). It requires more labor and time commitment but can be highly beneficial for weak or underweight calves.
  3. Ad-libitum Feeding: Ad-libitum feeding involves providing unrestricted access to milk throughout the day, allowing calves to drink as much as they want. This feeding strategy has been shown to significantly improve growth rates and calf health.  Calves fed ad libitum achieve better weight gain, reduce stress, and improve overall performance. While ad-libitum feeding maximizes growth potential, it may delay rumen development as calves rely heavily on milk rather than transitioning to solid feeds. It also requires careful monitoring to prevent overconsumption and digestive upset.

Transitioning to Solid Feeds

Regardless of the feeding strategy used, it is essential to begin introducing solid feed (such as calf starter grain) by day three of life. This should be done by offering a handful of fresh starters. Old grain should be removed before adding more to avoid moldy feed. While calves may not eat much at first, they can explore solid foods. This promotes early rumen development, ensuring that calves are ready for weaning at around 6-8 weeks of age. By balancing milk intake with early dry feed introduction, calves can develop a healthy rumen, which is crucial for long-term growth and productivity. Calves should not be fully weaned off milk until they consume at least 2.5% of their body weight (typically four pounds) of grain daily for three consecutive days. 

Water

Free-choice water should be provided for calves even when they are consuming milk or milk replacers. Calves should always have access to clean, fresh water. This is because water plays a significant role in rumen development, solid feed digestion, and overall hydration. Unlike milk, which bypasses the rumen via the esophageal groove, water enters the rumen, stimulates starter intake, and supports the growth of rumen microbes essential for transitioning to a functional ruminant (Wickramasinghe et al., 2019).

References

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